NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit
NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit – Step-by-Step Guide
The first step before starting to write the NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit, it is essential to understand the requirements of the assignment. The first step is to read the assignment prompt carefully to identify the topic, the length and format requirements. You should go through the rubric provided so that you can understand what is needed to score the maximum points for each part of the assignment.
It is also important to identify the audience of the paper and its purpose so that it can help you determine the tone and style to use throughout. You can then create a timeline to help you complete each stage of the paper, such as conducting research, writing the paper, and revising it to avoid last-minute stress before the deadline. After identifying the formatting style to be applied to the paper, such as APA, you should review its use, such as writing citations and referencing the resources used. You should also review how to format the title page and the headings in the paper.
How to Research and Prepare for NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit
The next step in preparing for your paper is to conduct research and identify the best sources to use to support your arguments. Identify the list of keywords from your topic using different combinations. The first step is to visit the university library and search through its database using the important keywords related to your topic. You can also find books, peer-reviewed articles, and credible sources for your topic from PubMed, JSTOR, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, and Google Scholar. Ensure that you select the references that have been published in the last words and go through each to check for credibility. Ensure that you obtain the references in the required format, for example, in APA, so that you can save time when creating the final reference list.
You can also group the references according to their themes that align with the outline of the paper. Go through each reference for its content and summarize the key concepts, arguments and findings for each source. You can write down your reflections on how each reference connects to the topic you are researching about. After the above steps, you can develop a strong thesis that is clear, concise and arguable. Next you should create a detailed outline of the paper so that it can help you to create headings and subheadings to be used in the paper. Ensure that you plan what point will go into each paragraph.
How to Write the Introduction for NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit
The introduction of the paper is the most crucial part as it helps to provide the context of your work, and will determine if the reader will be interested to read through to the end. You should start with a hook, which will help capture the reader’s attention. You should contextualize the topic by offering the reader a concise overview of the topic you are writing about so that they may understand its importance. You should state what you aim to achieve with the paper. The last part of the introduction should be your thesis statement, which provides the main argument of the paper.
How to Write the Body for NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit
The body of the paper helps you to present your arguments and evidence to support your claims. You can use headings and subheadings developed in the paper’s outline to guide you on how to organize the body. Start each paragraph with a topic sentence to help the reader know what point you will be discussing in that paragraph. Support your claims using the evidence conducted from the research, ensure that you cite each source properly using in-text citations. You should analyze the evidence presented and explain its significance and how it connects to the thesis statement. You should maintain a logical flow between each paragraph by using transition words and a flow of ideas.
How to Write the In-text Citations for NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit
In-text citations help the reader to give credit to the authors of the references they have used in their works. All ideas that have been borrowed from references, any statistics and direct quotes must be referenced properly. The name and date of publication of the paper should be included when writing an in-text citation. For example, in APA, after stating the information, you can put an in-text citation after the end of the sentence, such as (Smith, 2021). If you are quoting directly from a source, include the page number in the citation, for example (Smith, 2021, p. 15). Remember to also include a corresponding reference list at the end of your paper that provides full details of each source cited in your text. An example paragraph highlighting the use of in-text citations is as below:
The integration of technology in nursing practice has significantly transformed patient care and improved health outcomes. According to Smith (2021), the use of electronic health records (EHRs) has streamlined communication among healthcare providers, allowing for more coordinated and efficient care delivery. Furthermore, Johnson and Brown (2020) highlight that telehealth services have expanded access to care, particularly for patients in rural areas, thereby reducing barriers to treatment.
How to Write the Conclusion for NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit
When writing the conclusion of the paper, start by restarting your thesis, which helps remind the reader what your paper is about. Summarize the key points of the paper, by restating them. Discuss the implications of your findings and your arguments. End with a call to action that leaves a lasting impact on the reader or recommendations.
How to Format the Reference List for NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit
The reference helps provide the reader with the complete details of the sources you cited in the paper. The reference list should start with the title “References” on a new page. It should be aligned center and bolded, in sentence sentence care. The references should be organized in an ascending order alphabetically and each should have a hanging indent. If a source has no author, it should be alphabetized by the title of the work, ignoring any initial articles such as “A,” “An,” or “The.” If you have multiple works by the same author, list them in chronological order, starting with the earliest publication.
Each reference entry should include specific elements depending on the type of source. For books, include the author’s last name, first initial, publication year in parentheses, the title of the book in italics, the edition (if applicable), and the publisher’s name. For journal articles, include the author’s last name, first initial, publication year in parentheses, the title of the article (not italicized), the title of the journal in italics, the volume number in italics, the issue number in parentheses (if applicable), and the page range of the article. For online sources, include the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) or the URL at the end of the reference. An example reference list is as follows:
References
Johnson, L. M., & Brown, R. T. (2020). The role of telehealth in improving patient outcomes. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 35(2), 123-130. https://doi.org/10.1097/NCQ.0000000000000456
Smith, J. A. (2021). The impact of technology on nursing practice. Health Press.
NRS-460 Topic 2 Assignment: Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit
Use the “Case Study: Timothy Smith – ICU” template to complete the assignment.
This case study has indirect care experience requirements. The “NRS-460 – Case Studies: Indirect Care Experience Hours” form, found in the Topic 1 Resources, will be used to document the indirect care experience hours completed in the case study. As progress is made on the case study, update this form indicating the date(s) each section is completed. This form will be submitted in Topic 5.
You are required to cite a minimum of three sources to complete this assignment. Sources must be published within the past 5 years and appropriate for the assignment criteria and relevant to nursing practice. Read the next task here NRS 460 Topic 3 DQ 1 Recognize some ways racism appears evident in health care
While APA style is not required for the body of this assignment, solid academic writing is expected, and documentation of sources should be presented using APA formatting guidelines, which can be found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.
You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. A link to the LopesWrite technical support articles is located in Class Resources if you need assistance.
Benchmark Information
This benchmark assignment assesses the following programmatic competencies and professional standards:
RN-BSN
6.2: Perform effectively in different team roles, using principles and values of team dynamics.
American Association of Colleges of Nursing Core Competencies for Professional Nursing Education
This assignment aligns to AACN Core Competencies 3.2, 6.1, and 6.2.
NRS-460 Benchmark – Case Study: Timothy Smith – Intensive Care Unit (ICU) Example
Directions: Read the case study below. Evaluate the information and formulate a conclusion based on your evaluation. Complete the critical thinking table and submit the completed template to the assignment dropbox.
The purpose of this assignment is to evaluate patient data to navigate decision-making in ambiguous situations, assist the patient and family in managing complex care needs, and perform effectively in an interdisciplinary team.
PART I: Health History and Medical Information
Evaluate the health history and medical information for John Doe, presented below.
After his discharge from the ED, John was transferred to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) for specialized care and monitoring where he took over as his nurse. Upon arrival at the ICU, John was identified as Timothy Smith. He arrives intubated on a ventilator and requires continuous assessment for his TBI, multiple fractures, and underlying psychological conditions. Specialty providers are considering the risks vs. benefits of a hematoma evacuation. Upon entry to the ICU, Mr. Smith has been diagnosed with:
- Severe Traumatic Brain Injury with a GCS score of 6, managed with an external ventricular drain (EVD)
- Respiratory instability managed with a ventilator
- Femur fracture with open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF)
- Hairline fracture of 3 left ribs
Laboratory Tests, Results, and Vitals:
- EVD – Intracranial Pressure (ICP) – 12
- Echocardiogram (EKG): Sinus Tachycardia Rate 128
- Arterial Blood Gas (ABG):
- PaCO2 Level – 51 mmHg,
- HCO3 Level – 30 mEq/L
- pH 7.39
- PaO2 79 mmHg
- SaO2 98% on ventilator
- Respiratory Rate: mechanical ventilation rate 14 with no spontaneous respirations
- CBC –
- White Blood Cells: 12.9
- Hemoglobin: 13.6
- Hematocrit: 38.7
- Platelet Count: 310,000
- CMP:
- Potassium 4.5 mEq/L
- Sodium 135 mEq/L
- Bilirubin: 2.1 mg/dL
- GCS 8 after placement of EVD and drainage of 10ml of sanguineous fluid from drain.
- Deficit for only opening eyes to pain (2)
- Verbal response is incomprehensible sounds (2)
- Motor score of (4) withdraw from pain
PART II: Critical Thinking Activity
Use the findings from your evaluation to complete the following:
| Power of Attorney Upon arrival in the ICU, you discover Mr. Smith does not have a power of attorney. | |
| Discuss how you would determine who would make decisions on his behalf. Your response should be a minimum of 150 words. | Upon discovering that the patient in question does not have a power of attorney, there are several critical steps a nurse ought to follow to achieve the desired results. Based on the patient’s case study, it is crucial to mention that the best thing to do is for a nurse to check for any existing evidence that needs to be reviewed and make a decision based on the facts presented in the advance directives. It is also wise to consider checking for many legal documents, especially a living will and durable power of attorney for healthcare. This will provide a leeway to help specify the patient’s wishes and the designated health care proxy or |
| surrogate decision maker. If such documents aren’t there, the most appropriate step is identifying the patient’s next of kin (Alsayed & Gunosewoyo, 2023). Normally, this can be close relatives such as spouses, parents, siblings, or adult children. The order of priority, such as spouse, adult children, parents, or siblings, should be followed. The selected kin should understand Timothy’s health needs and make decisions based on his best interests and known values and preferences. | |
| How can you utilize the chaplain to assist in locating the family? Your response should be a minimum of 150 words. | In the case of Timothy Smith, a hospital chaplain can play a crucial role in locating his family. Chaplains are trained to provide emotional and spiritual support and often have skills in communication and mediation that can be invaluable in such situations. Firstly, the chaplain can use his compassionate approach to build rapport with Timothy if he becomes conscious or with visitors who might have information about his family. They can gently inquire about any known contacts or personal details that might help identify and locate family members. Secondly, chaplains often have access to community resources and networks. They can reach out to local religious organizations, community centers, or social services that might have |
| connections to Timothy’s family (Alsayed & Gunosewoyo, 2023). This network can be useful if Timothy’s family is not immediately reachable through standard hospital records. Additionally, the chaplain can work closely with the hospital’s social work department. Together, they can review Timothy’s personal belongings upon admission, such as a phone or wallet, which might contain contact information. The chaplain’s role in providing emotional support can also help ease the stress and anxiety of the situation for both the patient and the staff involved in the search. | |
| Quality vs. Quantity of Life Health care professionals often have to have difficult conversations with patients and families in the intensive care unit (ICU) regarding prognosis and outcomes. | |
| What resources are available to have a difficult discussion with Timothy’s family on quality versus quantity of life? Your response should be a minimum of 150 words. | Based on Timothy’s case study, the resources available that can be leveraged to improve the quality of healthcare outcomes by making effective decisions include a palliative care team whose specialists have experience with adequate training on how to handle discussions about end-of-life care. These team members can guide how to effectively manage symptoms and make decisions that align with patients’ health needs, values, and references. An ethical committee also provides solutions to complex scenarios by offering a framework that helps mediate |
| discussions. Chaplaincy services and social workers are also important resources that provide spiritual and emotional support to the family and help them navigate the healthcare system (Alsayed & Gunosewoyo, 2023). Additionally, educational materials such as brochures and articles about end-of-life care and support can be provided to the family to help them make informed decisions. Perhaps patient advocates and counseling services should be provided to help provide needed support by advocating for patients’ rights and health needs (Hossain et al., 2023). | |
| Given Mr. Smith’s assessment findings, discuss his quality of life should he receive hematoma evacuation surgery. Your response should be a minimum of 150 words. | Given Mr. Smith’s assessment findings, the decision to proceed with hematoma evacuation surgery must carefully weigh the potential benefits and risks, particularly concerning his quality of life. The potential benefits of providing the above healthcare services include helping minimize intracranial pressure (ICP), which is an important step in preventing further brain damage and improving neurological functions. It will also stabilize the patient’s condition, allowing for more effective treatment and management of other injuries associated with the trauma and other physiological conditions (Hossain et al., 2023). The potential risk associated with this care service is that it |
| may be linked with serious health complications such as infections and bleeding, which may worsen patients’ health issues. It may also result in neurological deterioration due to patients’ severe TBI. The quality-of-life consideration will include the patient’s current neurological status as a result of the CGS scorer of 8 POS -EVD placement and dependence on a ventilator. Severe TBI | |
| Ethical Considerations Ethical considerations are an important part of nursing care but become especially vital when dealing with trauma patients considering the potential of poor prognosis. | |
| Discuss the ethical considerations of palliative care, possible outcomes, and limitations with Mr. Smith’s condition taking into account his assessment findings. Your response should be a minimum of 200 words. | In discussing Mr. Smith’s case, several ethical considerations in palliative care come to the forefront. In this scenario, the provision of palliative care services focuses on improving the quality of life for Mr Smith since he has a serious illness by managing symptoms and providing support for difficult medical decisions. In this case, one of the ethical considerations includes patent autonomy, which entirely respects his right to make critical decisions about his treatment by ensuring that he is fully informed about his condition and the best available treatment options. Also, beneficence and non-maleficence should be balanced to ensure the patient has the most effective and harm-free treatment options (Hossain et al., 2023). This will help improve patient outcomes and |
| minimize the potential risk of medication errors. Also, it is wise to consider informed consent, where the patient decides based on the potential benefits and risks associated with each treatment option. Open communication should also be embraced, focusing on improving patients’ quality of life by managing patients’ pain and providing needed emotional and psychological support. This will help the family and the patient cope with the stress and anxiety that come with severe TBI. The only limitations with ethical considerations may include the emotional burden on the family and prognostic uncertainty resulting from a complicated decision-making process. | |
| Psychosocial and Spiritual Considerations Providing holistic nursing care for patients with complex conditions requires that the nurse takes into account the patient’s psychosocial and spiritual needs. | |
| Given the patient’s current situation, discuss ways in which the nurse can take into account and address the patient’s psychosocial and spiritual needs. Your response should be a minimum of 150 words. | In Mr. Smith’s current health situation, addressing his psychosocial and spiritual needs is essential for holistic care. Providing psychological needs such as family involvement and emotional support to the patient is necessary. Allowing the patient to express his fears and anxiety about his health concerns will help minimize the development of negative feelings of isolation and emotional distress. Also, family engagement in decision-making about the treatment of their kin is important as it will provide the |
| comfort and support needed to help align care goals within the patient’s values and preferences. Also, counseling services by a social worker or counselor are important as they will provide the patient with additional support that will facilitate in coping with his current health issues and any emotional changes he may be facing. The spiritual needs needed to support Mr. Smith include providing spiritual care concerning his beliefs (Jha & Ghewade, 2022). This involves regular visits by the chaplain or any other spiritual advisor to provide him with comfort, guidance, and necessary support to facilitate quick recovery. Also, the patient’s beliefs should be respected by ensuring they are considered and incorporated into his care plan. | |
| Economic Issues BSN-prepared nurses have an understanding of system-based practice including implications of financial and economic considerations related to providing care. | |
| Due to the multi-system injuries Mr. Smith incurred, discuss the economic issues that the individual and family may encounter. Consider his ability to work, housing needs, supplemental income, temporary disability, insurance, and medical expenses. Your response should be a minimum of 200 words. | In Mr. Smith’s current health situation, addressing his psychosocial and spiritual needs is essential for holistic care. Providing psychological needs such as family involvement and emotional support to the patient is necessary. Allowing the patient to express his fears and anxiety about his health concerns will help minimize the development of negative feelings of isolation and emotional |
| distress. Also, family engagement in decision-making about the treatment of their kin is important as it will provide the comfort and support needed to help align care goals within the patient’s values and preferences. Also, counseling services by a social worker or counselor are important as they will provide the patient with additional support that will facilitate in coping with his current health issues and any emotional changes he may be facing. The spiritual needs needed to support Mr. Smith include providing spiritual care concerning his beliefs (Jha & Ghewade, 2022). This involves regular visits by the chaplain or any other spiritual advisor to provide him with comfort, guidance, and necessary support to facilitate quick recovery. Also, the patient’s beliefs should be respected by ensuring they are considered and incorporated into his care plan. | |
| Collaboration What is the purpose of collaborating with the following when providing care for Mr. Smith? Explain the role of each team member’s competency and how they contribute to Mr. Smith’s care. | |
| Occupational Therapists | These specialists will help Mr. Smith regain the ability to perform daily activities by assessing and providing interventions to improve fine motor skills, cognitive functions, and adaptive techniques for daily living. Their contribution will facilitate Mr. Smith’s regain of |
| independence in activities such as dressing, bathing, and eating (Min & Shin, 2022). | |
| Physical Therapists | It’s their duty to assist in restoring Mr Smith’s physical mobility and strength by developing and implementing strategies such as exercise programs to improve muscle strength, joint mobility, and overall physical function (Min & Shin, 2022). They will contribute to his outcomes by aiding in the recovery of his femur and rib fractures, which will enhance his mobility and reduce pain. |
| Respiratory Therapists | Their purpose is to help Manage Mr. Smith’s respiratory instability by monitoring and adjusting ventilator settings, providing respiratory treatments, and educating the patient on breathing exercises (Min & Shin, 2022). This will ensure optimal respiratory function and prevent complications such as pneumonia. |
| Speech Therapists | The goal is to address the communication and swallowing difficulties the patient experiences by assessing, evaluating, and treating speech, language, and swallowing disorders. This will further help Mr. Smith regain his ability to communicate effectively and safely swallow food and liquids. |
| Dieticians | The role of dietitians is to ensure that Mr Smith receives adequate nutritional support by assessing his nutritional needs and developing a patient-centered diet plan (Min & Shin, 2022). This will support Mr. Smith’s recovery effectively by providing the necessary nutrients for healing and energy. |
| Physiatrists (Doctor of Rehabilitative Medicine) | Their essence is to oversee his overall rehabilitation process by coordinating and managing the rehabilitation plan and addressing physical, emotional, and cognitive aspects. This will provide a comprehensive care approach to Mr Smith’s recovery and ensure that all aspects of his rehabilitation are addressed. |
| Their role is to facilitate managing and treating Mr. Smith’s wounds by assessing, cleaning, and dressing wounds and monitoring for potential signs of infection. This will contribute to the healing of surgical sites and prevent complications such as infections. | |
| Their duty, in this case, is to address Mr. Smith’s psychological and cognitive issues by evaluating cognitive functions and providing interventions for psychological conditions. This will support Mr Smith’s mental health wellness and cognitive recovery, promoting overall |
| rehabilitation. | |
| Effective team dynamics are essential in healthcare to ensure that each team member’s role is clearly defined | |
| and that work is delegated appropriately. To achieve this, several principles can be applied. Firstly, a clear role definition is crucial, where each team member has a well- defined scope of practice outlining their responsibilities and limits. This can be achieved through detailed job descriptions, ensuring adequate training and certification, and conducting regular updates to adapt to changing healthcare needs. Secondly, effective communication is vital, with open channels for sharing information, regular team meetings to discuss patient care plans, and maintaining accurate documentation (Sdrulla & Chen, 2020). Thirdly, fostering a collaborative culture is important, as is promoting interdisciplinary collaboration, engaging in team- building activities, and setting shared goals aligned with patient care priorities. Fourthly, delegation based on competencies ensures tasks are assigned according to each team member’s expertise, supported by regular skill assessments and appropriate supervision. Additionally, accountability and feedback mechanisms, such as performance reviews and a culture of continuous improvement, help maintain high standards. Lastly, a patient-centered approach involves patients and their families in the care process, educating them about care |
| plans and empowering them to participate actively in their recovery. By applying these principles, healthcare teams can ensure effective role definition and task delegation, leading to improved patient outcomes and a cohesive team environment. | |
| Effective interprofessional communication is crucial when treating Mr Smith, as it ensures that all team members are aligned and can provide cohesive care. Each interdisciplinary team member, including occupational therapists, physical therapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, dietitians, physiatrists, wound care nurses, and neuropsychologists, must communicate their information professionally, accurately, and timely. This approach helps create a comprehensive care plan that addresses all aspects of Mr. Smith’s recovery. Professional communication ensures that each team member respects the expertise and contributions of others, fostering a collaborative environment (Sdrulla & Chen, 2020). Accurate communication is vital to avoid misunderstandings and errors, which can significantly impact patient outcomes. Timely communication allows for prompt adjustments to the care plan based on Mr. Smith’s evolving needs, ensuring that interventions are effective and coordinated. By adhering |
| to these communication principles, the team can work synergistically, reducing the risk of complications and enhancing Mr. Smith’s overall recovery process. | |
| The presence of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) significantly enhances the dynamics of team-based communications in healthcare settings. Diversity brings a variety of perspectives, experiences, and skills to the team, which can lead to more innovative solutions and comprehensive care plans for patients like Mr. Smith. When team members come from different cultural, educational, and professional backgrounds, they can contribute unique insights that enrich decision-making. Equity ensures that all team members have equal opportunities to contribute and that their voices are heard and valued. This fosters a sense of belonging and respect, which is crucial for effective collaboration (Sdrulla & Chen, 2020). When team members feel valued and respected, they are more likely to communicate openly and honestly, leading to better patient outcomes. Lastly, inclusion promotes an environment where all team members feel comfortable sharing their ideas and concerns without fear of discrimination or bias. This inclusive atmosphere encourages everyone to participate |
| actively and engage, essential for addressing complex healthcare challenges. By embracing DEI principles, healthcare teams can improve communication dynamics, leading to more effective patient-centered care. This approach benefits the team and enhances the overall quality of care provided to patients like Mr. Smith. | |
| ICU psychosis, also referred to as ICU delirium, is a severe and temporary form of delirium that can occur in patients within an Intensive Care Unit (ICU). This condition manifests as a sudden onset of confusion, disorientation, hallucinations, and agitation. Patients may experience heightened anxiety, restlessness, and paranoia, often resulting in a significant disconnect from reality. Note that a wide range of factors contribute to the development of ICU psychosis, including sensory deprivation, sleep disturbances, continuous exposure to artificial lighting, and the stress associated with critical illness (Sdrulla & Chen, 2020). The constant noise from medical equipment and frequent interruptions of medical procedures can further exacerbate the condition. ICU psychosis is distressing for both patients and their families, but it is typically reversible | |
| with appropriate management and care. | |
| Nurses play a crucial role in preventing ICU psychosis/delirium through several interventions. Regularly reorienting patients helps maintain their connection to reality by reminding them of the date, time, and location and clearly explaining procedures and treatments. Promoting sleep hygiene is essential; minimizing noise and light disturbances at night and establishing a regular sleep-wake cycle can significantly improve sleep quality. Early mobilization, such as encouraging patients to sit up or do light exercises, reduces the risk of delirium (Sdrulla & Chen, 2020). Effective pain management and avoiding over- sedation are critical, with regular pain assessments and using the least sedating pain relief options. Providing cognitive stimulation through activities like conversation, reading, or puzzles keeps the patient’s mind engaged. Lastly, involving family members in care offers emotional support and familiarity, which can be comforting for the patient. By implementing these strategies, nurses can significantly reduce the incidence of ICU psychosis/delirium and improve patient outcomes. | |
| Mr Smith is at a high risk of developing ICU |
| psychosis, also known as ICU delirium, due to several factors. His severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 6 indicates significant brain trauma, increasing his vulnerability to delirium. The need for an external ventricular drain (EVD) further highlights this risk. Additionally, his respiratory instability managed with a ventilator, and lack of spontaneous respirations suggest high sedation levels, which are strongly associated with ICU delirium. His multiple fractures, pain, immobility, and use of pain medications, particularly opioids, exacerbate this risk. Abnormal lab values, such as elevated white blood cells and bilirubin, indicate underlying infections or metabolic disturbances contributing to the risk (Sdrulla & Chen, 2020). Finally, the ICU environment, characterized by constant monitoring, sensory deprivation, and sleep disturbances, can precipitate delirium. These combined factors place Mr. Smith at a significant risk of developing ICU psychosis. |
